Use the appropriate cohesive devices in order to improve coherence within the sentences you are writing.
Here are some useful transitional/linking words and phrases to use to show the different relationships between your ideas and sentences:
ADDITION:
• also, again, in addition, additionally, further, as well as, besides this/that,
CONTRAST (show two things are different):
• on the other hand, however, despite this, conversely, in contrast, on the contrary, although, while, though, compared with, in comparison with, rather, whereas, but, instead of, in spite of, still, nevertheless, regardless, otherwise
COMPARE (show two things are similar/alike):
• likewise, similarly, also, in the same way, in comparison to
SEQUENCE:
• firstly, secondly (etc.), to begin with, initially, then, next, from there, and then, following this, finally, lastly
EXAMPLES:
• for example, for instance, a good example of this is, such as, to illustrate, in particular, particularly, namely, specifically
CONSEQUENCE:
• therefore, as a result, thus, so, consequently, admittedly, so that, depending on
EMPHASIS/CERTAINTY:
• indeed, certainly, in fact, of course, undoubtedly, plainly, obviously
CONDITION:
• if. . . then, unless, whether, provided that,
SUMMARY:
• in summary, in conclusion, overall, in short, in brief, to sum up, in other words, all in all, to put it differently, to summarize, on the whole,
REASON:
• because, since, as, so, due to, owing to, the reason why
CONCESSION (accepting/acknowledging something is true):
• granted, naturally, of courseAdjectives;
Are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the number of nouns: many, few, millions, eleven.
Adjectives Modify Nouns
Most students learn that adjectives are words that modify (describe) nouns. Adjectives do not modify verbs or adverbs or other adjectives.
Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.
Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
My cake should have sixteen candles.
The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.
She spends large sums of money.
In the sentences above, the adjectives are easy to spot because they come immediately before the nouns they modify.
But adjectives can do more than just modify nouns. They can also act as a complement to linking verbs or the verb to be. A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to seem, or to taste that describes a state of being or a sensory experience.
That cow sure is happy.
It smells gross in the locker room.
Driving is faster than walking.
The technical term for an adjective used this way is predicate adjective.
Uses of Adjectives
Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.
Three and white are modifying flowers.
Often, when adjectives are used together, you should separate them with a comma or conjunction. See 「Coordinate Adjectives」 below for more detail.
I’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as a pet.
My new dog is small and good-tempered.
ADVERBS Adverbs are defined as words that describe verbs.Adverbs answer any of the following questions about verbs:How? When? Where? Why?The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:1) Joseph ran fast. (Fast tells us "to what extent" or "how" Joseph ran.)2) Let's go to a party afterwards. (Afterwards tells us "when" we'll go.)Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb helps the main/base verb convey when in time an event/condition happened and other nuances. They usually come before the verb.
The verb "be"The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb for compound tenses and the passive voice. Note that be is an irregular verb:Simple Present: I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they areSimple Past: I/he/she/it was, we/you/they werePast Participle: beenYou can tell that in the following sentences be is an auxiliary because it is followed by another verb (the full verb). (For progressive forms use the "-ing" form of the full verb; for passive voice, use the past participle of the full verb.)Progressive Forms
Present Progressive: He is playing football.
Past Progressive: He was playing football.
Present Perfect Progressive: He has been playing football.
Past Perfect Progressive: He had been playing football.
Note that there are various uses of auxiliary verbs. 『Is』 is used to show that an action is ongoing while 『has』 is used in the present perfect tense to show that an event started in the recent past but its effect are true up to now. 『Have』 is the plural form of 『has.』 『Had』 is the past form of 『has』 『Can』 is used to show ability in the present form while 『could』 is used when referring to the past. 『Should』 is used to show something that needs to be done. 『Are』 is used in plural form while 『is』 is used in singular form. 『Would』 is used to show ability when referring to the past or an imagined situation while 『will』 is used when referring to the future. Note that auxiliary verb 『may』 is used to show that something is more likely to happen while 『might』 is used to show that something is less likely to happen.
Articles
An article is a word that combines with a noun. We have three articles 『a』 an』 and 『the』
Use a before nouns (or adjectives) that start with a consonant sound.
Use a before nouns (or adjectives) that start with a vowel sound.
Examples
1) Please give the dog a cookie.
(The noun cookie starts with a consonant sound, so a must be used.)
2) That's an old car. (In this case, the word after the article is old, which starts with a vowel sound. Consequently, our English editors must use an.)
There is only one definite article in the English language (the), which means that you don't have to worry about listening for vowel sounds. 『The』 is used in front of singular or plural nouns and adjectives to refer to something with which both the speaker/writer and listener/reader are familiar. For example, if you're bouncing a basketball at school, your friend might say, "Give me the ball." In this case, both you and your friend recognize that there is only one specific ball being referred to, and that's the one you're bouncing. Your friend doesn't want a ball (meaning any ball); he or she wants the ball that you're holding.
We also use the definite article to say something about all the things referred to by a noun:
The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals)
The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies)
Conjunctions
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a 「joiner」 for words, phrases, or clauses in a particular sentence. It links these words or groups of words together, in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts of the sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these convey will be connected.
Coordinating ConjunctionsConjunctions are words that connect groups of words or sentences. They can be called as connectors or joining words. There are three different types of conjunctions in English Grammar:
· Coordinating Conjunctions
· Subordinating Conjunctions
· Correlative Conjunctions
The conjunctions that connect groups of words or phrases which are generally similar in nature are called as Coordinating Conjunctions. The coordinating conjunctions are generally used in between the words or groups of words to link them and so are found in the middle of the sentence and not towards the beginning or the end.
Types of Coordinating Conjunctions
There are 7 types of coordinating conjunctions used in English Grammar: But, or, so, and, nor, yet
Functions of the Coordinating Conjunctions
Each of the above coordinating conjunctions has a specific function that they serve when used in sentences.
· But- It is generally used to show a contrast between two clauses.
Example: I like living in the city but my brother prefers living in the country.
· Or- Is used to suggest an option or alternative
Example: Don’t tell John about his birthday party or you』ll spoil the surprise
· So-This word is used to show the consequence or result of something
Example: I』ve just eaten dinner so, I’m not hungry.
· And- It is used when two similar clauses or points are made.
Example: The taxi stopped at the train station and two men got out of it.
· For- Is used to explain the 『why』 in a situation.
Example: She needs to be home for her kids.
· Nor- It is used about similar two items but in the negative sense. It is generally used after neither(-neither, -nor)
Example: She is neither tall nor fat.
· Yet- Is used to show a contrast in spite of something.
Example: She regrets having spoken to her friend like that, yet, she hasn’t apologized.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Of the three different kinds of conjunctions (coordinating, correlative and subordinating), subordinating conjunctions are the most difficult to recognize. However, that doesn't mean they're hard to master. In fact, you probably use them all the time without even noticing. So, let's take a closer look at them to see what's going on.
What Is A Subordinating Conjunction?A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an independent clause to a dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. In other words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a sentence. The sentence "The student failed the test" is an example of an independent clause.
A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses cannot stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent clause. They are not complete sentences. For example, "because she didn't study" is not a complete sentence.
However, combine the two clauses, and we have "The student failed the test because she didn't study." A complete idea has been expressed and enough information has been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two clauses? The word "because." And there we have our first subordinating conjunction.
Using Subordinating ConjunctionsIn English, there are a lot of subordinating conjunctions. Let's take a look at the most common ones, along with a few examples from some classic songs:
· After - "Your heart will break like mine, and you'll want only me after you've gone" (Ella Fitzgerald)
· Although - "Although I've been here before, he's just too hard to ignore" (Amy Winehouse)
· As - "As I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I take a look at my life and realize there's nothing left" (Coolio)
· As long as - "I don't care who you are, where you're from or what you did as long as you love me" (Backstreet Boys)
· Because - "I'm everything I am because you loved me" (Celine Dion)
· Before - "Just call me angel of the morning, angel. Just touch my cheek before you leave me, baby" (Juice Newton)
· Even if - "Even if the sky is falling down, you'll be my only" (Jay Sean)
· If - "If you leave me now, you'll take away the biggest part of me" (Chicago)
· Once - "Once in a blue moon, something good comes along." (Van Morrison)
· Now that - "Baby, now that I've found you, I won't let you go" (Tony Macaulay/John MacLeod)
· Since - "I guess I'll never be the same since I fell for you" (B.B. King)
· Though - "Walk on through the rain though your dreams be tossed and blown" (Rodgers and Hammerstein)
· Unless - "We're never going to survive unless we get a little crazy" (Seal)
· Until - "I'll keep on dreaming until my dreams come true." (Charlie Louvin)
· When - "When I see you smile, I can face the world" (Bad English)
· Where - "There's a light burning bright, showing me the way, but I know where I've been" (Scott Wittman)
· While - "I look at the world, and I notice it's turning while my guitar gently weeps" (The Beatles)
PRONOUNS
What Is a Pronoun?
Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing characteristic of pronouns is that they can be substituted for other nouns. For instance, if you’re telling a story about your sister Sarah, the story will begin to sound repetitive if you keep repeating 「Sarah」 over and over again.
Sarah has always loved fashion. Sarah announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.
You could try to mix it up by sometimes referring to Sarah as 「my sister,」 but then it sounds like you’re referring to two different people.
Sarah has always loved fashion. My sister announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.
Instead, you can use the pronouns she and her to refer to Sarah.
Sarah has always loved fashion. She announced that she wants to go to fashion school.
Personal Pronouns
There are a few different types of pronouns, and some pronouns belong to more than one category. She and her are known as personal pronouns. The other personal pronouns are I and me, you, he and him, it, we and us, and they and them. If you learned about pronouns in school, these are probably the words your teacher focused on. We』ll get to the other types of pronouns in a moment.
Antecedents
Pronouns are versatile. The pronoun it can refer to just about anything: a bike, a tree, a movie, a feeling. That’s why you need an antecedent. An antecedent is a noun or noun phrase that you mention at the beginning of a sentence or story and later replace with a pronoun. In the examples below, the antecedent is highlighted and the pronoun that replaces it is bolded.
My family drives me nuts, but I love them. The sign was too far away for Henry to read it. Sarah said she is almost finished with the application.
In some cases, the antecedent doesn’t need to be mentioned explicitly, as long as the context is totally clear. It’s usually clear who the pronouns I, me, and you refer to based on who is speaking.
It’s also possible to use a pronoun before you mention the antecedent, but try to avoid doing it in long or complex sentences because it can make the sentence hard to follow.
I love them, but my family drives me nuts.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns make up another class of pronouns. They are used to connect relative clauses to independent clauses. Often, they introduce additional information about something mentioned in the sentence. Relative pronouns include that, what, which, who, and whom. Traditionally, who refers to people, and which and that refer to animals or things.
The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message. All the dogs that got adopted today will be loved. My car, which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.
Whether you need commas with who, which, and that depends on whether the clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive.
Demonstrative Pronouns
That, this, these and those are demonstrative pronouns. They take the place of a noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned.
This is used for singular items that are nearby. These are used for multiple items that are nearby. The distance can be physical or metaphorical.
Here is a letter with no return address. Who could have sent this? What a fantastic idea! This is the best thing I』ve heard all day. If you think gardenias smell nice, try smelling these.
That is used for singular items that are far away. Those are used for multiple items that are far away. Again, the distance can be physical or metaphorical.
A house like that would be a nice place to live. Some new flavours of soda came in last week. Why don’t you try some of those? Those aren’t swans, they’re geese.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be specifically identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one.
Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. It matters more to some than others. Nobody knows the trouble I』ve seen.
When indefinite pronouns function as subjects of a sentence or clause, they usually take singular verbs.
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Use a reflexive pronoun when both the subject and object of a verb referring to the same person or thing.
Henry cursed himself for his poor eyesight. They booked themselves a room at the resort. I told myself it was nothing.
Intensive pronouns look the same as reflexive pronouns, but their purpose is different. Intensive pronouns add emphasis.
I built this house myself. Did you yourself see Loretta spill the coffee?
「I built this house」 and 「I built this house myself」 mean almost the same thing. But 「myself」 emphasizes that I personally built the house—I didn’t hire someone else to do it for me. Likewise, 「Did you see Loretta spill the coffee?」 and 「Did you yourself see Loretta spill the coffee?」 have similar meanings. But 「yourself」 makes it clear that the person asking wants to know whether you actually witnessed the incident or whether you only heard it described by someone else.
Occasionally, people are tempted to use myself where they should use me because it sounds a little fancier. Don’t fall into that trap! If you use a -self-form of a pronoun, make sure it matches one of the uses above.
Please call Sarah or me if you are going to be late. Loretta, Henry, and I are pleased to welcome you to the neighbourhood.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns come in two flavours: limiting and absolute. My, your, its, his, her, our, their and whose are used to show that something belongs to an antecedent.
Sarah is working on her application. Just put me back on my bike. The students practised their presentation after school.
The absolute possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs. The absolute forms can be substituted for the thing that belongs to the antecedent.
Are you finished with your application? Sarah already finished hers. The blue bike is mine. I practised my speech and the students practised theirs.
Some possessive pronouns are easy to mix up with similar-looking contractions. Remember, possessive personal pronouns don’t include apostrophes.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, what, which, and whose.
Who wants a bag of jelly beans? What is your name? Which movie do you want to watch? Whose jacket is this?
Colour;
Red- means the sentence is incorrect
Blue means the sentence is correct