這是繼之前講過的審題雅思寫作系列(1) ︳為什麼5分?你掉進了審題陷阱。之後久違的雅思系列。
今天我們講講評分標準裡的另一項:Coherence and cohesion,中文常被翻譯成連貫與銜接。
每當談及這項評分標準,並問到學生該如何實現時,得到的回答通常都是:多用連…連接詞?然而現實是,且不說大家的連接詞是否能用對,哪怕用詞精準,也只算實現了這個評分標準的一部分。那麼到底什麼才是Coherence and cohesion?
我們先來看看這項評分標準官方給出的8分描述:
1)sequences information and ideas logically
2)manages all aspects of cohesion well
3)uses paragraphing sufficiently and appropriately
即,若要在這項上拿到8分,考生需要做到:
1)信息和論點要以一定的順序有邏輯地呈現
2)需要掌握cohesion的方方面面
3)分段要充分和恰當
然而光看這些描述,幾個問題仍然沒有得到解決:
1)ideas可以有哪幾種順序?何為有邏輯?
2)有哪些不同的實現cohesion的方式?
3)何為分段充分?何為恰當?
今天我們暫且不討論篇章,只從段落層面才探討一下前兩個問題。
經典寫作工具書<The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing>中的相關章節可以作為這個問題的回答。在Paragraph Unity一章中將coherence和cohesion對等於coherence和flow,解釋如下:
Paragraph unity involves two related but distinct concepts: coherence and flow. Coherence means that the ideas fit together. Flow means that the sentences link up so that readers are not conscious of gaps. Flow is a matter of style and exists in specific words and grammatical patterns tying one sentence to another. Coherence belongs to the substructure of the paragraph, to relationships of thought, feeling, and perception.
書中主要介紹了兩種達到cohesion的方式
1. The first is to establish a master plan at the beginning of the paragraph and to introduce each new idea by a word or phrase that marks its place in the plan. 在段首寫明段落的整體規劃,接著分別展開討論。比如說在段落首句談到人們找工作會考慮很多不同的因素,接下來通過firstly, secondly, finally來分別介紹不同的因素,這便是所謂的master plan。
第一種方法的問題在於,只適用於可以拆分的話題,且有時會顯得過於機械化(mechanical),所以書中談到了第二種方式:
2. linking sentences successively as the paragraph develops, making sure that each statement connects with the one or ones preceding it. 用不同手段串聯句子,以推進段落髮展。
具體實現手段有:
- repeating key words
比如段落的討論主題對象為animals,那麼整個段落中animals需要不斷被提及,不一定是原詞重現,可以替換成species或者wildlife。
- conjunctive adverbs (也稱transitional signals)
這一項就是我們比較常說的「明顯」的連接詞,用來體現強調句子之間的邏輯關係,如though; however; therefore等。
- syntactic patterning
重複同樣的句型/語法結構,通過結構上的重複來強調內容。
另外一本關於寫作教學的書<how to teach writing>中把cohesion進行了更加詳細的劃分。除了上面談到的幾點外,還額外強調了:
- lexical set 「chains」 同屬一個話題的詞,如work, employers, staff, retirement等(Lexical Cohesion)
- pronoun and possessive reference 代詞的使用,包含they/this/their等(Grammatical Cohesion)
- substitution and ellipsis 替換和省略(Grammatical Cohesion)
e.g. He shouldn’t have cheated in his exam but he did so because he was desperate to get into university. (替換cheated in his exam)
e.g. Penny was introduced to a famous author, but even before she was, she had recognised him. (省略was introduced to …)
關於Coherence,<The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing>和<how to teach writing>兩本書的解釋差不多,基本可以分為兩個方面:
1. Relevance 內容要相關,段落要有一個清晰且統一的topic。若第一句話為topic sentence,則後面的句子都要圍繞著這一句來展開。
2. Order of thought 論點的邏輯順序,即評分標準中的sequence。比如,論證的基本順序應該是先提出論點(assertion),接著用原因(reason)論證,最後給出結果(conclusion)。若有多個同主題的論點,可以按照論點的重要性(relative importance)來排序。
<Writing Academic English>書中關於這點也進行了一些討論,將順序分為:
- chronological order 時間順序,比如小作文流程圖
- logical division of ideas 按同一主題的不同方面展開,比如把individuals分為teenagers和adults討論
- comparison/contrast 對比兩個方面的相似和不同之處
我們來看一個劍橋雅思C11T1T2中的學生習作段落,題目是
Governments should spend money on railways rather than roads. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?
學生的立場為同意,寫出的主體段第一段如下
【1】First of all, it reduced pollution when more people give up driving to work in weekday. 【2】Nowaday, people spend a lot of time on the road in rush hours. 【3】At the same time, emissions of car bring a pollution in our environment.【4】People easily get upset, if they got into traffic jam for longtime.【5】Research has shown that it is get more pollution of air that car stoped on the road without cutting power. 【6】Trainstation is a good way to make easy that train never could get into congestion and train is a public transport which is more helpful to reduce pollution.
忽略語法及拼寫錯誤不看,學生用到了明顯的連接手段,如「first of all」,「at the same time」。然而,
段落中許多句子缺乏有效的cohesion,如句3,4,5,6之間均沒有有效的連接
pollution這個主題詞雖然有被不斷的重複,但段落內部不止談到了發展鐵路可以減少pollution這一個idea,還談及了可以避免traffic jam,導致段落topic不統一
ideas的呈現雜亂無章,一會兒講pollution,一會兒說traffic jam,缺乏有邏輯的順序,導致coherence的缺失
這篇學生文章拿到了5.5,CC這一項顯然影響了他最後的得分。
給一個來自<Writing Academic English>的好段落做對比:
From Writing Academic English p.22
段落充分使用了各種邏輯過渡詞來串聯句子,如「first of all」; 「therefore」; 「for example」等
關鍵詞「gold」被不斷重複,且有使用「it」;「its」來進行指代
段首給了清晰的master plan,暗示後文會談及「gold」的兩種特質,並且在後文通過「first of all」和「another important characteristic」分別展開
很多外刊文章也遵循著上面談到的CC的標準。
The New York Times裡有一篇文章,裡面爭論了學生是否應該使用電腦/網絡。其中,支持學生使用的一方有這樣一個段落:
There are resulting divides between students who can do homework online and those who cannot, between students who can research and apply to college online and those who cannot, between students who can create résumés and find jobs online and those who cannot. We all want our children to excel and be ready for today’s world. As long as some have essential tools to succeed and others do not, the divides only grow.
作者想要突出學生在現代使用電腦科技的重要性,段落圍繞使用與不使用的區別(divides)展開,一連幾個同樣的syntactic patterning來強調內容。
在另一篇討論猩猩是否應該被當做人類來看的文章中,作者提出如果賦予猩猩人權,會導致一些問題,連續的三段一氣呵成。
The idea of nonhuman personhood does raise difficult questions. One question is which rights nonhumans can have. For instance, if Kiko and Tommy can have the right to liberty, can they also have the right to property? What about the right to free expression or association, or the right to political representation or participation?
Another question is which nonhumans can have rights. For instance, if Kiko and Tommy can have rights, can bonobos and gorillas have rights too? What about cats, dogs and fish? What about chickens, cows and pigs? What about ants or sophisticated artificial intelligence programs?
These questions are unsettling. They are also reasonable to ask. After all, we might think that we need to draw the line somewhere. So if we decide not to draw the line at species membership — if we decide to accept that at least some nonhumans can have at least some rights — then it is not immediately clear where to draw it instead, or even, on reflection, whether to draw this particular kind of line at all.
Coherence:
The idea of nonhuman personhood does raise difficult questions給出了一個master plan,後面通過One question is…Another questions is …展開
Cohesion:
不斷重複/替換關鍵詞「right/rights」; 「nonhuman/species」; 「line」
靈活使用代詞 「they」; 「it」;「this line」;「these questions」
句子之間使用表達邏輯的過渡詞「for instance」; 「after all」; 「so」
段落拓展中重複使用if引導的條件狀語從句及what about句型
一個好段落:內容要相關,論點要有序,句子之間應有有效連接手段。
參考書籍
The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing Thomas S. Kane
Writing Academic English Alice Oshima & Ann Hogue
How to Teach Writing Jeremy Harmer
NYT文章原址
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/07/opinion/sunday/chimps-legal-personhood.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fsunday
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/24/opinion/sunday/digital-divide.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fsunday
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