任務型語言教學七原則（1）：腳手架原則（英語教學法原著選讀60，在家教孩子可參考）
下文選自任務型語言教學法泰鬥David Nunan的經典著作《Task-Based Language Teaching》，翻譯、解讀：武太白。
Principle 2: Task dependency
• Within a lesson, one task should grow out of, and build upon, the ones that have gone before.
The task dependency principle is illustrated in the instructional sequence above which shows how each task exploits and builds on the one that has gone before. In a sense, the sequence tells a 『pedagogical』 story, as learners are led step by step to the point where they are able to carry out the final pedagogical task in the sequence.
Within the task-dependency framework, a number of other principles are in operation. One of these is the receptive-to-productive principle. Here, at the beginning of the instructional cycle, learners spend a greater proportion of time engaged in receptive (listening and reading) tasks than in productive (speaking and writing) tasks. Later in the cycle, the proportion changes, and learners spend more time in productive work. The reproductive-to-creative-language principle is also used in developing chains of tasks. This principle is summarized separately below.
譯文
原則2：任務進展性
任務進展性原則在上文的教學序列中已有展示，該序列顯示了每一項任務是如何利用前一項任務、並在其基礎上加以擴展的。從某種意義上說，該序列講了一個「教學」故事，學習者在（教師的）指引下一步一步地達到這樣的水平：他們能夠把序列中最後的一項任務完成。
在任務進展性框架下，有幾條其他原則在起作用。其中之一是輸入到輸出原則。在序列的最開始，學習者花在輸入性任務（聽、讀）上的時間要比花在輸出性任務（說、寫）上的時間多。在序列的後半截，時間的比例發生改變，學習者花更多的時間完成輸出性任務。還有語言復現到創造原則，也用於設計一連串的任務之用。這一原則接下來會進行總結。
解讀
這個「進展性原則」其實就說了一件事：一節課內的任務應該像一個完整的故事那樣逐層展開，遵循發生——發展——高潮——結局的路線，達到教學的最終目的。並不是說這裡搞一個任務、那裡搞一個任務就算是任務型教學，而是要對人物的設計進行整體思考，遵循學生的認知規律和學習興趣逐步展開。
英文原文中提到有一個教學序列，現引用如下：
Step 1
Example
Create a number of schema-
Look at newspaper advertisements
building tasks that introduce initial
for renting accommodation.
vocabulary, language and context
Identify key words (some written
for the task.
as abbreviations), and match people with accommodation.
Step 2
Example
Give learners controlled practice
Listen to a model conversation
in the target language vocabulary,
between two people discussing
structures and functions.
accommodation options and practise the conversation. Practise again using the same conversation model but information from the advertisements in step 1. In the final practise, try to move away from following the conversation model word for word.
Step 3
Example
Give learners authentic listening
Listen to several native speakers
practice.
inquiring about accommodation and match the conversations with newspaper ads.
Step 4
Example
Focus learners on linguistic
Listen again to conversations and
elements, e.g. grammar and
note intonation contours. Use cue
vocabulary.
words to write complete questions and answers involving comparatives and superlatives
(cheaper, closer, most spacious, etc.).
Step 5
Example
Provide freer practice.
Pair work: information gap role play. Student A plays the part of a potential tenant. Make a note of needs and then call rental agent. Student B plays the part of a rental agent. Use ads to offer partner suitable accommodation.
Step 6
Example
Pedagogical task
Group work discussion and decision making task. Look at a set of advertisements and decide on the most suitable place to rent.
我們看到，其實這個教學序列就是把綜合目標「decide on the most suitable place to rent」所需要的準備步驟一個個分解成小的任務，並按照先輸入後輸出、先復現後創造等原則安排這些小的任務，讓學生依此循序漸進，直到學生具備完成綜合性任務的能力為止。
「進展性原則」要求教師有這樣幾項能力：1、從整體上把握一節課、一單元的任務設計；2、根據教學目標確定綜合性任務的指向，明確學生應該完成什麼樣的綜合性任務（最終任務）；3、把綜合性任務所需的單項、複合技能拆分成局部任務，並按照特定原則（先輸入後輸出、先復現後創造等）把這些任務合理安排到學習過程中去，並使其環環相扣。
我們回到題圖上來：
這就是一個一環扣一環的進展性任務序列。在設計任務的時候，就需要這樣從現實中找出恰當的例子，用適當的語言去實現它。