主授課目:託福閱讀及託福Junior閱讀
學歷背景:四川大學英語語言文學專業
教學功底:託福閱讀29分,英語專業八級,CATTI三級筆譯。在校期間獲得國家獎學金並參加陪同翻譯工作,曾任環球網實習編譯、大學英語教師
雖然美洲大陸的原著居民是已經在此生活數千年的印第安人,但自從哥倫布來到這後,對世界史的進程才有了深遠的推動。15世紀末的一系列地理大發現(Age of Discovery)/新航路開闢(The Opening of New Sea-route),打破了世界各大洲先前相對隔絕的狀態,從此世界連成了一體。 新航路的開闢也宣示著西歐各國開始了資本主義原始積累,西班牙、荷蘭、法國、英國等航海國家相繼移民至此,他們先後在北美建立了殖民地:法國建立了新法蘭西(包括加拿大聖勞倫斯流域下遊大潮區,美國密西西比河流域等處);西班牙建立了新西班牙(包括墨西哥和美國西南部的廣大地區)。 1607年(也有說1587年),104名英國人在John Smith帶領下,歷經四個多月艱難的海上航行,在詹姆士鎮(James Town)登陸,他們以詹姆士河(James River)為據點,建立起第一個永久性殖民地(permanent colony)。所在州也命名為維吉尼亞(Virgina:virgin有表示原始狀態的、未經利用的意思),以紀念英國伊莉莎白女王一世對開拓英國殖民事業的貢獻。在1699年前,這裡一直是弗吉利亞州州府。 遠離家鄉的開拓者們,逐漸把歐洲文明引入相對荒涼落後的新大陸。這些英國人不僅通過三角貿易(triangle trade)從非洲販運奴隸(slavery)作為勞力(manual labour)、種植菸草(tabacco)與其它農作物(crop),為英國經濟發展開闢了新資源。此外,他們還"通過英國軍官John Rolfe與當地印第安部落首領女兒的婚姻,順利地在這塊土地上建立了殖民地政權"。 1620年,英國清教徒(Puritan)為避免宗教迫害(religious persecution),搭乘"五月花號"(May Flower)來到麻薩諸塞州(Massachusetts)的普利茅斯(Plymouth)。「為創立一個不同於歐洲的公民自治社會,他們籤訂了一份極為重要的政治性契約——《五月花號公約》(The MayFlower Compact),成為日後美國建國的奠基:信仰自由、法律根基。」
起初,印第安人與歐洲移民和平共處。北美印第安人相對原始,未進化到國家(state)形態,還處於部落(band→clan→tribe)狀態。同時,早期到達北美的歐洲人,並不都是來冒險尋寶或殖民,有些人僅僅是尋求自由。「五月花」號的一船人,來到這裡的第一個冬天異常艱難。印第安人伸出了援助之手:他們教會了移民如何捕魚、種植玉米、南瓜、馬鈴薯,感恩節(Thanks Giving Day)也由此而來。
18世紀前,英國在美國大西洋沿岸先後建立了13塊英屬北美殖民地,掀開了北美歷史的重要篇章,經濟、文化、政治逐漸走向成熟,確立了英國殖民地新秩序。殖民地時期的美國與英國的聯繫體現在:今天看地圖時,會發現英國與美國很多城市的名字是一樣的:如伯明罕Birmingham、曼徹斯特Manchester等。 新英格蘭(New England)這一名稱也來泛指英國在北美早期的殖民地,還特意在前加入前綴「new」。今天主要指位於美國大陸東北角、瀕臨大西洋、毗鄰加拿大的區域。從留學角度擇校來看:新英格蘭地區擁有全美國乃至全世界最好的教育環境:哈佛大學 Harvard University、普林斯頓大學 Princeton University、耶魯大學 Yale University、加州理工學院 California Institute of Technology、麻省理工學院Massachusetts Institute of Technology、史丹福大學Stanford University、賓夕法尼亞大學 University of Pennsylvania及各種文理學院 Liberal Arts College。 國際化大都市紐約名稱的由來也與歐洲有著深厚的淵源:紐約(New York)意為「新約克郡」,英荷戰爭(17世紀-18世紀)結束後,荷蘭戰敗將新阿姆斯特丹割讓給英國。「當時正好是英王查理二世的弟弟——約克公爵的生日,於是將新阿姆斯特丹改名為新約克郡,作為送給約克公爵的禮物。」 另外由於在二十世紀初,紐約對外來移民來說是個嶄新天地,因此紐約常被暱稱為「大蘋果」(the Big Apple),取「好看、好吃,人人都想咬一口」之意(某次聽力考試有提到)。北美殖民地早期的發展主要沿著大西洋,聚集於美國東海岸,而這裡也是當今美國眾多大城市和著名高等學府聚集的地方。這種發展分布一方面也因美國地形影響:東海岸有著名山脈——阿巴拉契亞山脈 Appalachian Mountains。
關於這一地理坐標,在託福聽力如考古或地質類講座中有所涉及,如TPO1L2 Uranium-Lead Dating。另外在美國領土擴張史中的西進運動(具體在後篇詳解),也是翻越這裡向太平洋沿岸發展,閱讀文本中也有涉及,如TPO20P1 Westward Migration。
該山脈對這一地區氣候也有著重大影響:處在阿巴拉契亞山的迎風坡(windward slope),來自遠洋的北大西洋暖流的水汽被近海的拉布拉多寒流(Labrador cold current)冷卻,因此新英格蘭的降水量和降雪量(precipitation)較大。閱讀TPO43P1 EL Nino 講到近年來厄爾尼諾對美國氣候影響:Snowstorms in the northeast portion of the United States were more frequent and intense than in most years.
而這樣的氣候對新英格蘭地區的住房環境也有一定影響,甚至它塑造了美國東北海岸最普遍、最流行的建築風格—— 聽力TPO11L2 Cape Cod House 科德角式住宅最先在美國東北部出現,即新英格蘭地區,大約在十七世紀晚期:it first showed up in U.S. northeast, in the New England region, around the late 1600s.
科德角(Cape Cod),又稱鱈魚角,是麻薩諸塞州南部巴恩斯特布爾(Barnstable)縣的鉤狀半島。從地圖上可以看出:it’s so exposed to the ocean, so cold in the winter, and it’s usually either raining or snowing or foggy and windy, too. 所以常年多雨水天氣、潮溼的氣候使得這種房屋低矮結實,有助於房屋承受海洋刮來的強風。另外屋頂的斜度,陡峭的角度使得雨水和雪不在房頂堆積。再次看煙囪的位置,位於房頂中間,這樣熱氣就不用穿過太長的距離,更有效地給房屋供暖。This relatively low compact structure helps the house withstand the strong winds blowing off the ocean.
And look at the slope of the roof, the steep angle helps keep off all that rain and snow that accumulates in the winter.
Another thing, Cape Cod houses usually face south to take advantage of the sun’s warmth through the windows. That’s helpful in winter.
I mean since the heat never has to travel very far. That means you can heat the house more efficiently, right?
這些都是很簡樸的住宅 modest dwellings。在殖民地時期開荒的年代,生活條件比較艱難,鄰裡之間需要互相幫助支持,處理好關係。所以反映到建築上,就最好不要太過炫耀。
聽力TPO31C1 Discussion about Colonial Settlements談論了殖民地時期,美國南北區域差異:針對community planning in the early British settlements in Eastern North America. 涉及到的比較結構:北部殖民地城鎮規劃是集中並緊湊的,這些地方為交換貨物、政府官員、宗教提供場所。住所被建立在城鎮中馬路中的兩側,並且這些外圍發展起來的地區,大多被用作放牧和團體活動。Towns in the Northern colonies were centralized and compact. They provided a meeting point for exchanging goods, for participatory government, and for practicing religion.
Houses would be built along the roads that led into town. And just outside the developed area, there would usually be an open area of some sort for grazing animals and also group activities.
北方殖民地urban / community planning也體現出和歐洲本土的聯繫(followed by in the northern colonies):Actually, the model for planning a town in the Northern colonies was not unlike the model for the development of towns in medieval Europe. (註:歐洲中世紀 476—1453年) After all, the colonists had just come from Europe and the medieval period was just ended.In the South, at least initially, they didn’t build towns so much as they built trading posts.
Most of the settlers in the North wanted to start a whole new life. But most of the people who came from Europe to the South just wanted to make some money and then go back.
It is not surprising that some of most common buildings were storage facilities and port facilities.
或許也正是由於起初的南北理念差異,為日後美國史上的一次嚴重的分歧——南北內戰(Civil War)就此埋下了伏筆。 關於美國區域差異,持續至建國後。官方指南閱讀文本Nineteenth - Century Politics in the United States也有一段提及:政治理念的變化(variation in political beliefs)反映出區域利益(reflected regional interests)。Indeed, for Whigs the concept of government promoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfare of thecountry. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aidto education.
關於美國建國後的兩黨制具體內容,主要放在下一篇建國史中介紹。 殖民地時期的政治制度如何呢?這些地區該怎麼管理呢?TPO56P2 Representative Government in Colonial North America 談論了當時情況:早期的美國並沒有形成統一政府的概念。在1750年,被問到國籍 nationality時,人們的認知還是English or British,當時人們對美洲只是地理概念。Before 1750, colonists in North America had little occasion to think of themselves as a distinct people.
There was no American government, no single political organizationin which all the colonies joined to manage their common concerns.
There was not even a wish for such an organization except among a few eccentric individuals. America, to the people who lived in it, was still a geographic region, not a frame of mind.
Asked about nationality, the typical Americancolonist of 1750 would have said English or British.
但漸漸地,在北美殖民地與英國之間產生了區域性差異:Colonists selected and adapted English institutions to their particular needs;而當時美國的人們也沒有意識到:Some of their beliefs were different from those of people in England. Some specifically American ideas had become commonplace in the colonies. 美國人因地制宜:American colonists very early developed conceptions of representative government that differed from those in England. 美國發展了代議制政府representative government;英國代議制政府源於中世紀,後來發展為立法機構legislature —— House of Commons (下議院)。 美國代議制政府相對來說比英國更加民主,分配代表名額也更加均衡:The assemblies of American colonialrepresentatives were more democratic. The system for apportioning representation was more balanced.England:
Some new towns had no power to send delegates to the legislature. A member of the House of Commons, it was said, represented not the people who chose him but the whole country, and he was not responsible for any particular constituency (選區).Not all Englishmen could vote for representative, but all were virtually represented by every member of the Commons.English colonies in America:
Counties could generally send more delegates to the legislature than could towns.A colonial representative was supposed to be an agent of the people who chose him. He was supposed to look after their interests first and those of the colony second. In some places, citizens met to tell delegates how to vote on specific issues.BOTH England and the English colonies in America:
A person had to own property worth a certain amount to be able to elect delegates to the legislature. 下一次,就進入美國建國史階段,看看開國元勳們(Founding Fathers)率領的崢嶸歲月。 而說起國父們,必須介紹真正的時間管理大師、摩羯座老幹部、追著閃電放風箏的班傑明·富蘭克林Benjamin Franklin!100元美鈔頭像,以及賓夕法尼亞大學(1740年)創建者。 作為總結:看歷史,要橫縱對比才有意思。看完截止到1750年還未建國的美國史,而平行時空的太平洋西岸:1750年的中國即清朝乾隆十五年康乾盛世,頤和園也在那一年開建,當時中國GDP佔世界總量32%。 希望這篇文章對點開連結的你有用。推薦篇章:
託福閱讀
OG1P1 Nineteenth -Century Politics in the United States
TPO56P2 Representative Government in Colonial North America
託福聽力
TPO31C1 Discussion about Colonial Settlements
TPO11L2 Cape Cod House
詹姆士鎮_百度百科
英屬北美殖民地_百度百科
五月花號公約_百度百科
新英格蘭_百度百科
紐約(美國第一大城市)_百度百科
《讓英國人賠款,火燒白宮,印第安人不是戰五渣!》
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