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The concept of intelligence
智力的概念
A Looked at in one way, everyone knows what intelligence is; looked at in another way, no one does. In other words, people all have unconscious notions - known as『implicit theories』- of intelligence, but no one knows for certain what it actually is. This chapter addresses how people conceptualize intelligence, whatever it may actually be. But why should we even care what people think intelligence is, as opposed only to valuing whatever it actually is? There are at least four reasons people’s conceptions of intelligence matter.
A 當以某種方式審視智力時，每個人都知道它是什麼；而以另一種方式審視時，卻沒有人知道。換言之，每個人對智力都有自己潛意識的界定，這被稱為「內隱理論」，但沒有人確切地知道智力到底是什麼。無論智力實際上是什麼，這一章會解決人們給智力下定義的問題。但是我們為什麼要關注人們如何理解智力，而不是僅僅評價智力實際上是什麼？至少有四個理由可以說明人們對智力的理解非常重要。
B First, implicit theories of intelligence drive the way in which people perceive and evaluate their own intelligence and that of others. To better understand the judgments people make about their own and others』 abilities, it is useful to learn about people’s implicit theories. For example, parents』 implicit theories of their children’s language development will determine at what ages they will be willing to make various corrections in their children’s speech. More generally, parents』implicit theories of intelligence will determine at what ages they believe their children are ready to perform various cognitive tasks. Job interviewers will make hiring decisions on the basis of their implicit theories of intelligence. People will decide who to be friends with on the basis of such theories. In sum, knowledge about implicit theories of intelligence is important because this knowledge is so often used by people to make judgments in the course of their everyday lives.
B 首先，智力的內隱理論影響人們理解和評價自身及其他人的智力。為了更好地理解人們對自身和其他人能力的判斷，了解人們的內隱理論十分有幫助。例如，父母關於孩子語言發展的內隱理論會決定他們將在什麼時候對孩子的言語做出各種各樣的糾正。而更普遍的是，父母關於智力的內隱理論將決定他們會在什麼時候相信孩子已經能夠處理各種各樣的認知任務。職業面試宮會基於他們關於智力的內隱理論做出招聘決定。人們會基於這種理論決定與誰交朋友。總之，理解有關智力的內隱理論非常重要，因為在每天的生活中，人們常常通過這樣的理解做出判斷。
C Second, the implicit theories of scientific investigators ultimately give rise to their explicit theories. Thus it is useful to find out what these implicit theories are. Implicit theories provide a framework that is useful in defining the general scope of a phenomenon - especially a not-well-understood phenomenon. These implicit theories can suggest what aspects of the phenomenon have been more or less attended to in previous investigations.
C 第二，科學研究者的內隱理論最終會帶來他們的外顯理論。因此研究這些內隱理論是什麼非常有用。內隱理論提供了一種框架，這種框架對定義某一現象的廣義範疇非常有用，尤其是對尚未被充分理解的現象。這些內隱理論可以提示這一現象的哪些方面曾經在過去的研究中被或多或少地關注過。
D Third, implicit theories can be useful when an investigator suspects that existing explicit theories are wrong or misleading. If an investigation of implicit theories reveals little correspondence between the extant implicit and explicit theories, the implicit theories may be wrong. But the possibility also needs to be taken into account that the explicit theories are wrong and in need of correction or supplementation. For example, some implicit theories of intelligence suggest the need for expansion of some of our explicit theories of the construct.
D 第三，當一名研究者懷疑現存的外顯理論有誤或存在誤導時，內隱理論會非常有用。如果關於內隱理論的研究無法揭示現有的內隱和外顯理論間的一致性，那麼內隱理論可能存在問題。但是也需要考慮「外顯理論存在錯誤或者需要糾正、補充」的可能性。例如，一些關於智力的內隱理論表明我們需要擴展有關其構造的某些外顯理論。
E Finally, understanding implicit theories of intelligence can help elucidate developmental and cross-cultural differences. As mentioned earlier, people have expectations for intellectual performances that differ for children of different ages. How these expectations differ is in part a function of culture. For example, expectations for children who participate in Western-style schooling are almost certain to be different from those for children who do not participate in such schooling.
E 最後，理解關於智力的內隱理論有助於解釋發展差異和跨文化差異。正如之前提到的，人們期望不同年齡的兒童有不同的智力表現。這種期望的差異在一定程度上是文化造成的。例如，對接受西式教育兒童的期望幾乎必然不同於那些沒有接受這類教育的兒童。
F I have suggested that there are three major implicit theories of how intelligence relates to society as a whole (Sternberg, 1997). These might be called Hamiltonian, Jeffersonian, and Jacksonian. These views are not based strictly, but rather, loosely, on the philosophies of Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and Andrew Jackson, three great statesmen in the history of the United States.
F 我曾指出有三種主要的內隱理論，它們主要探討智力與作為一個整體的社會之間的關係(Sternberg,1997)。這些理論或許可以被稱為 Hamiltonian、Jeffersonian 和 Jacksonian。這些觀點並非完全基於 Alexander Hamilton,Thomas Jefferson 和 Andrew Jackson 這三位美國歷史上偉大政治家的思想，但是在一定程度上與之相關。
G The Hamiltonian view, which is similar to the Platonic view, is that people are born with different levels of intelligence and that those who are less intelligent need the good offices of the more intelligent to keep them in line, whether they are called government officials or, in Plato’s term, philosopher-kings. Herrnstein and Murray (1994) seem to have shared this belief when they wrote about the emergence of a cognitive (high-IQ) elite, which eventually would have to take responsibility for the largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low-IQ) people who cannot take care of themselves. Left to themselves, the unintelligent would create, as they always have created, a kind of chaos.
G Hamiltonian 的觀點與柏拉圖的看法類似，認為人們生而具有不同的智力水平並且那些智力稍遜的人需要智力優異的人組成優秀的政府機關保證他們共同發展，無論他們被稱為政府官員還是柏拉圖說的「哲人王」。Herrnstein 和 Murray(1994)似乎認可這一觀點，他們寫到了認知精英(高智力人群)的出現，這個群體最終需要承擔大多數不負責任的非精英(低智力人群)，這些低智力人群無法很好地照顧自己。如果讓他們自生自滅，智力遜色的人會像他們一直做的那樣，產生某種混亂。
H The Jeffersonian view is that people should have equal opportunities, but they do not necessarily avail themselves equally of these opportunities and are not necessarily equally rewarded for their accomplishments. People are rewarded for what they accomplish, if given equal opportunity. Low achievers are not rewarded to the same extent as high achievers. In the Jeffersonian view, the goal of education is not to favor or foster an elite, as in the Hamiltonian tradition, but rather to allow children the opportunities to make full use of the skills they have. My own views are similar to these (Sternberg, 1997).
H Jeffersonian 的觀點是人們應當具有同等的機會，但他們並不需要平等地受益於這些機會，也不需要為自己的成就獲得同樣的回報。如果獲得平等的機會，人們會因為自己的成就而獲得回報。低成就者不會獲得像高成就者一樣的回報。在 Jeffersonian 的觀點中，教育的目的並不是為了幫助和培養精英，就像 Hamiltonian 的傳統一樣，而是讓兒童有機會充分使用他們的技能，我自己的觀點也與之類似(Sternberg,1997)。
I The Jacksonian view is that all people are equal, not only as human beings but in terms of their competencies - that one person would serve as well as another in government or on a jury or in almost any position of responsibility. In this view of democracy, people are essentially intersubstitutable except for specialized skills, all of which can be learned. In this view, we do not need or want any institutions that might lead to favoring one group over another.
I Jacksonian 的觀點是人人平等，不僅作為人類而言，而且在他們的能力方面也是如此——在政府或陪審團或幾乎任何需要承擔責任的崗位，一個人應當能與另一個人同樣出色地完成任務。在這種民主觀點中，除了在一些專業技能方面，人們是可以互相替代的，而這些專業技能可以通過學習獲取。這一觀點認為，我們不需要也不希望有任何機構偏袒某一類人群。
J Implicit theories of intelligence and of the relationship of intelligence to society perhaps need to be considered more carefully than they have been because they often serve as underlying presuppositions for explicit theories and even experimental designs that are then taken as scientific contributions. Until scholars are able to discuss their implicit theories and thus their assumptions, they are likely to miss the point of what others are saying when discussing their explicit theories and their data.
J 關於智力以及智力與社會的關係的內隱理論或許需要受到比之前更為細緻的關注，因為它們經常被作為外顯理論甚至被視為科學貢獻之前的實驗設計的潛在假設。只有學者們討論他們的內隱理論並因而可以討論他們的假設，他們才不會在其他人討論外顯理論和數據時，顯得毫無頭緒。