文化交流特約作者 蔡琴
海上絲綢之路,作為世界上最古老的海上航線之一,自古便是國際貿易和文化交往的海上交通動脈。中國通過海上絲綢之路往外輸出的商品主要有絲綢、瓷器、茶葉和銅鐵器四大宗,對內輸入的主要是香料、花草及一些供宮廷賞玩的奇珍異寶。
16世紀初,葡萄牙人繞過非洲好望角,開闢了東方航線,中國與歐洲從此開始了直接的貿易往來。各國商人、傳教士、旅行家來到中國,中國生絲與綢緞大量銷往歐洲與美洲。
(清)鑲象牙彩繪人物紋扇。
之後,西班牙、荷蘭、英國、法國、德國、瑞典與丹麥等歐洲國家紛紛來華,在廣州港進行季節性大採購,將中國的各種商品大量運往歐洲。
在繁忙的國際貿易中,絲綢在中國外銷商品中佔有很大比重。歐洲人在向中國大量訂購絲綢的同時,也提供花樣樣本,希望按歐洲流行的風格樣式製作。為適銷對路,中國絲綢商人或按提供的來樣加工,或儘可能模仿歐洲流行的洛可可風格,以滿足歐洲人對中國風情的想像和理解。因此,人們說到外銷綢(Export silk),其概念卻是十分清楚,專指18世紀、19世紀前後,中國為外銷設計、生產,並輸出到世界各地特別是歐美各國的絲綢織繡品。
英國版畫家眼中的絲綢製作
外銷綢精品主要包括外銷絹畫、外銷織物、手繪外銷綢、外銷服飾、外銷家紡等。
外銷絹畫興盛於18世紀、19世紀。中國畫師為迎合西方社會熱衷「中國趣味」的風尚,採用西洋繪畫的技法(包括透視法、色彩暈染)、形式和材料,繪製帶有中國風情的圖畫。這些絹畫通常是銷往歐洲,後也及於美國。外銷絹畫既有別於傳統的中國畫,又不同於地道的西洋畫,西方人買回家通常直接貼在牆上,不作捲軸或鏡框裝裱。
從內容看,多表現中國式生產和生活的場景,特別是富裕家庭快樂閒適的生活。另外,表現農民和城市手工業者的生產活動的作品也比較常見,如耕織、採茶、養蠶,及家具、瓷器生產。
(清)外銷畫《養蠶》。
外銷絹畫《養蠶》和《選繭》,再現了養蠶、選蠶的生產情景。畫中的婦女雖然是在從事養蠶的農活,但柳葉眉、櫻桃小嘴、窄溜肩,配上華貴的髮飾和服裝,顯然不是真正的蠶婦。在畫法上,畫家融合了西洋畫法,對人物臉部、手部、軀幹、衣褶和頭飾等部位進行細膩描繪,產生的效果與20世紀初上海流行的月份牌畫相似,透露出濃厚的東方情調。
託馬斯·阿洛姆(Thomas Allom,1804~1872),是英國皇家建築師協會創建人、版畫家。中國之行讓阿洛姆發現了寶庫,他亢奮不已,創作的佳作無數。回國後,便出版了《中國:那個古代帝國的風景、建築和社會習俗》。鋼版畫《煮繭與繅絲》和《染坊》,就是阿洛姆的作品,雖然不是一般意義上的外銷絹畫,但是同樣不失那一時期中西合璧的藝術品所具有的特徵。
(清)外銷畫《選繭》
《煮繭與繅絲》中西結合,別有意趣。畫中飛簷寶塔,場景是典型的中國風格,而人物形象是高鼻深目的西洋人士。《染坊》畫面呈「Z」字形構圖,用水塘分割、連接前後建築物,綠樹碧波與飛簷紅瓦相映成趣。畫中反映了染色的主要工藝流程,四隻大染缸一目了然,上下晾掛各色染好的織物,準確地交代了染坊場景。正在勞動的人物,位於畫面前部的男人或攪或漂或絞或晾,位於後部的女人六人三組正在裁卷白色的匹料,人物姿態豐富,生動圖解了染坊的工藝流程。人物表情刻畫細膩,從髮髻和服飾來看是中國樣式,但是面部高鼻深目,又是十分典型的西洋人。
千裡迢迢,從江浙運到廣州
當時的歐洲國家大量進口中國絲綢,用於家居裝飾和服裝面料,其中相當一部分織物保存至今。這些織物主要用於室內裝飾,如牆面及沙發、椅子等,鵝黃、大紅、深綠是最常見的顏色。在花紋裝飾上,花型大,對稱連續,色彩十分豔麗。
蕾絲是歐洲17世紀至18世紀初流行的設計元素。維多利亞時代,女人們喜歡在領口、袖口、裙擺處露出內衣的蕾絲花邊,而就算是當時流行的下午茶,也要鋪上白色刺繡蕾絲的桌布和餐巾,才顯得情調十足。拖曳的蕾絲、緞帶紋樣是18世紀60年代歐洲絲綢設計中的流行紋樣,外銷織物把蕾絲作為紋樣,充分關照了歐洲當時的流行時尚。
(清)藍地刺繡遊龍戲珠紋桌布。
由於提花織物的生產需要織機重新裝造,費時費工,且高質量的提花錦緞來自江南,遠途運輸不便。在清乾隆僅留粵海關一口對外通商時,外銷貨物需匯聚廣州,其中最為重要的路線是陸路:先自蘇州、湖州等絲綢產地集中起來運往杭州,再逆富春江船運而上,到浙、贛邊界的常山縣卸船挑運,翻山挑至江西省的玉山縣再裝船,順信江而下,達河口鎮,從河口鎮運至都陽湖,然後轉入贛江,逆流而上到贛州的大庚縣起岸,越梅嶺穿梅關到廣東南雄州的始興縣,第三次裝船運至韶州,最後順北江運至廣州。
江浙絲綢也曾走過海路,有史料提到,一些商人經營江浙一帶生產的輯裡絲,「冒險航海至廣州,經公行之手與英商交易」。這條路線雖比陸路更為便利,只是明清之際海禁森嚴,作用發揮有限。
中國絲綢在進入歐洲後,受到熱烈歡迎。有一部分外銷綢直接製作成服裝出口,當時歐洲和美洲的相當一部分宗教服飾即來自中國。在法國,刺繡服裝更是受寵,從紳士的西式背心到貴婦們的鞋面都用絲綢織錦做面料,並飾以刺繡圖案。
《撐雨傘的女人》1867年皮埃爾·奧古斯特·雷諾瓦
同時,也有一些中式絲綢服飾雖不是作為外銷品設計製作,但是,這些服飾以其絢麗華美和有別於歐美時裝的寬鬆形制,成為西方中上層女性喜愛的室內著裝,常用於晨衣及下午茶裝束。美國畫家Arvid Frederick Nyholm(1866-1927)畫於20世紀20年代的《穿著物的年輕女子》(Young Woman in Kimono)中,一位穿著類似中式女褂的西方女子正優雅地倚在瓶花邊,陷入綺思。領口的英文商標表明它曾在位於紐約第五大道專營東方珍奇的Vantine’s外貿店銷售。Vantine’s由Ashley Abraham Vantine (1828—1890) 於1866年在紐約成立,主要經營物美價廉的各色中、日擺設和服飾,原店位於百老匯大街,1913年後遷移至第五大道436號。1921年該店短暫關閉之後,於1923年重新開張,直至1930年破產。這件衣服上的商標是該店1923~1930年間所使用的設計。
執扇和撐陽傘的女性形象
18世紀至19世紀,中國的外銷扇也同樣風靡歐美,身著華麗晚禮服的貴婦,競相以手執一柄小巧精緻、具有東方情趣的扇子為時尚。這些專供外銷的扇子和中國傳統的扇子有明顯的區別——色彩豔麗、紋飾華美、材質多樣。擅長描繪室外場景和光影變幻的法國印象派畫家,捕捉了許多各種場合執扇和撐陽傘的女性形象,從畫中人物的扇子、陽傘等細節,可以看出中國外銷配飾已經成為當時法國時尚生活的一個部分。安格爾、莫裡索、雷諾瓦、馬奈、莫奈等著名印象派畫家都曾畫過這類作品,或在包廂,或在花園,或在陽臺,或執扇,或撐傘……浪漫優雅的女性更顯動人。
19世紀中期,隨著歐洲公共花園的興起,中上層女性的戶外活動增多。在倫敦、巴黎等大都市,到公園散步、野餐等,成為女性日常休閒活動的一部分,外出服飾亦隨之成為時尚展示的重要一環。太陽傘是女性外出必備的配飾,有些傘面會繡上傳統的吉祥圖案,有趣的動物、植物,歷史傳說中的英雄好漢以及戲曲和神話故事,反映中國式的思想情感與善惡判斷,具有深刻的文化內涵。
清代白緞地彩繡人物傘。
戲曲故事和戲曲人物是中國刺繡中常見的題材,人們將戲曲中的人物與場景,經過巧妙的藝術處理,創作成不同樣式的刺繡作品,這一幅幅刺繡就如同一出出凝固的戲劇,抒發了人們情感。這些美麗的故事隨著中外文化的交流,在歐洲的一些戲劇和小說中,以中國式的情節,準確地說是異國情調的中國樣式出現,受到熱烈的歡迎。「中國戲」和「中國小說」於是成為歐洲「中國熱」中的一道景觀,這也反映在與當時時尚生活緊密聯繫的陽傘上。如雷諾瓦作於1867年的《撐傘的女人》,畫中站在樹邊的女子手持的就是黑色蕾絲太陽傘。
18世紀、19世紀的歐洲國家從中國進口絲綢,除了用於服飾,還大量用於室內裝飾。尤其是宮殿,床罩、帷幔和窗簾都採用絲綢,甚至家具也配有絲綢刺繡的外罩,如桌布、坐墊等。這些室內裝飾品,以緞地廣繡為大宗,普遍採用廣繡形式,色澤豐富,布局飽滿,繁而不亂。題材多以百鳥朝鳳、杏林春燕、錦雞牡丹、龍鳳呈祥等吉祥事物為題材,少有空隙,即使有空隙也要用山水草地樹根等補充,用以表現吉祥富貴、喜慶滿堂、生機勃勃的寓意。
外銷綢進入歐洲,受到消費者的歡迎,風靡一時的中國風尚體現在當時整個歐洲社會中,並滲透到歐洲人生活的各個層面。但是,與別的中國絲綢收藏不同,外銷綢的收藏大多是在國外。廣東省博物館等博物館經過多年努力,有了一定的藏品積累,但是無論數量、種類,都遠遠沒有達到可資全面、深入研究和展示的程度。
A Silky Tale
A Glimpse into China’s History of Silk Export
One of the world’s most ancient sea routes, 「Silk Road on the Sea」 once served as a trade and cultural communicating artery, with silk being a compelling evidence of this ancient ocean trade route between China and Europe - from Guangzhou and Quanzhou in the southeast of China to West Asia, North Africa, and East Africa.
For a prolonged period of time throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, silk merchants in China received considerable orders from Europeans who provided design samples of rococo styles.
(清)刺繡女裝。
Silk products from China included Chinese paintings on silk, selected fabrics, hand-drawn silk, ready-to-wear garments, and silk home textile items. Chinese paintings on silk, using traditional Chinese themes such as family happiness, picking tea-leaves and silkworm breeding and Western painting techniques such as polishing and perspective, were much sought-after in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th centuries. The paintings were loved for their Western-style approach to details as well as their strong Oriental sentiments.
Thomas Allom (1804-1872), an English architect, artist, and topographical illustrator, described his China adventure as discovering a treasure trove. After returning to England, he created a lot of works drawing inspiration from the Oriental kingdom and published a book about the scenic, cultural and architectural magnificence of China. In one of his paintings, traditional Chinese silkworm breeding and silk reeling is put together with fair-skinned, high-bridged Caucasians.
Lace became a popular fashion element across Europe during the 17th and early 18th centuries, finding its way into the wardrobe of upper-class women of the Victorian age. The lace patterns prevailing in the silk pieces exported from China to Europe in the 1760s demonstrate the business acumen of Chinese exporters at that time.
(清)鵝黃地大洋花紋緞匹料。
Historical documents show the more daring silk merchants risked their life to send the high-quality jacquard fabrics from China’s Jiangnan regions, especially the silk pieces from Jili in present-day Huzhou in Zhejiang Province, to dealers in Guangzhou via sea routes, at a time when maritime trade was totally banned by the Qing government.
Silk from China was in hot demand in Europe. Some of the exported silk was made into ready-to-wear clothes, many of which fell into the religious clothing category, before entering Europe. Embroidered fabric from China became a new fashion trend among the more privileged people in France.
Even Chinese-style silk garments that were not originally designed for Westerners were much sought-after. Upper-class ladies scrambled to buy baggy, lavishly decorated and glossy pieces to use as morning wear or afternoon tea fashion, as can be seen in Young Women in Kimono, created by American artist Arvid Frederick Nyholm (1866-1927) in the 1920s. In the art piece, the collarband shows the Chinese-style silk robe worn by the lady leaning against a beautiful vase was purchased from Vantine’s, a boutique place located on Fifth Avenue in New York. Founded in 1866 by Ashley Abraham Vantine (1828—1890), the fashion shop enjoyed a hard-core fan base for its affordable, selected collection of the Oriental fashion rarities, mostly from China and Japan.
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, high quality exported fans from China was also part of the standard fashion configuration of ladies from the high society of Europe. Chinese-style fans and parasols decorated with traditional Chinese patterns drawing inspiration from myths, folktales and Chinese operas added a lot of flair and romance to the grace of the women portrayed by the most renowned impressionists such as Pierre-August Renoir, douard Manet and Claude Monet. It is no exaggeration to say that silk fashion triggered a 「China fever」 among upper-class Europeans.
(清)畫繡貼牙片綢扇。
Chinese silk exported to European countries was also widely used for interior decoration, made into bedspreads, draperies, curtains, tablecloths and even furniture covers. The auspicious themes conveyed by the embroidered patterns on the fabric, such as dragon and phoenix, peony blossoms and golden pheasants, were well-received all over the European market.
In a sense, exported silk not only beautified the life and art of the Europeans but also brought the multifaceted Chinese culture into their daily life. It is a pity that we are far from being able to conduct in-depth research in this exciting chapter of China’s foreign trade history, due to a serious lack of exported silk collection in China. The Guangdong Museum in China has a collection of silk products domestically made in the ancient times for international markets, but the collection is by no means good enough in both quality and quantity to support any in-depth study.