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1918年到2020年,這一百多年過去了,美國的同志們有長進嗎?借最近讀的書《被討厭的勇氣》,目的論,美國人恐怕就是為了欺負黑種人才製造出各種理由,比如他們不易被感染,都是nonsense。我們一起來看這時隔一百多年的疫情對種族認知方面是否有新的印象。
❓📝帶著問題去閱讀:
1. 如何理解文中的「as a rule」?
2. 輕描淡寫如何用英語表達?
3. 文中介紹了哪兩種「理論」?
正 文
劃線橙色高亮部分可以積累應用
灰色高亮部分非主幹,助力拆句子理結構
★文末有拓展
EMILY BARONE ▏AUGUST 7, 2020
On a Monday afternoon in early October about 100 years ago, a special meeting of the Baltimore school board was held to decide whether schools should close. Some 30,000 children—more than 60% of the city’s students—had reported absent that day, along with 219 teachers.
大約100年前10月初的一個星期一下午,巴爾的摩學校董事會召開了一次特別會議,決定學校是否應該關閉。約有3萬名學生(超過該市學生總數的60%)和219名教師報告當天缺課。It’s unknown how many students stayed home because they were already sick or because they feared getting sick. Either way, the 1918 influenza known as the 「Spanish Flu」 was to blame. Baltimore, like other cities and towns across the country, was grappling with1 overwhelmed hospitals and crippled industries. The city had something else in common with much of the rest of the U.S. at that time, too: it was racially segregated.
The school board ultimately decided to close the schools, but the decision wasn’t unanimous2. Some members agreed with John D. Blake, the city health commissioner, who wanted schools to remain open. Blake—who was accused by some at the time of downplaying3 the pandemic in order to keep public spaces open and businesses operating—pointed out that, at one school for Black students, there was a 94% attendance rate. He used this statistic and other similar data to claim that 「colored people are not, as a rule4, subject to the flu,」 according to an account of the meeting published by the Baltimore American.
This statement was a careless over-generalization, but it reflected a common perception of the time. White health experts of the era, as well as Black doctors and Black journalists who served their communities, generally believed that white people were more susceptible5 to the virus. They were working with real observations, but their suppositions about the reasons for those numbers were often misguided and in some cases based on racist pseudoscience6. (It was a common belief of scientific experts at the time—and particularly white experts—that health disparities7 between the races stemmed from8 biological differences, even though such ideas are scientifically baseless.) As the world grapples with the coronavirus pandemic, which has had a particularly devastating9 impact on communities of color in the U.S. and abroad, that history stands out as particularly surprising. But those who have studied the 1918 flu say it still offers a lesson for today.
Modern theories are more firmly based in science and consider the socio-economic factors of the time. One hypothesis is that an initial milder10 strain of the influenza virus, which hit the U.S. in the spring of 1918, affected communities of color harder than white communities, allowing Black people to build up an immunity11 to the more virulent12 strain that swept the country in the fall. But some researchers say there’s little evidence that a spring flu hit the southern states, where most Black people lived at the time.
Another theory is that racial segregation13 may have limited Black people’s exposure to the 1918 virus. The military, which played a critical role in the transmission14 of the disease around the world, was entirely segregated at the time. Private establishments held a firm color line, as did public transit. In rare caseswhen Black people were admitted to white-only hospitals, they were treated in separate wards, often in the most undesirable areas of the building, like attics and basements. But this explanation has been questioned by researchers who note that discrimination didn’t shield Black communities from other infectious respiratory diseases like lobar pneumonia and tuberculosis, which were more prevalent in Black communities than in white communities.
Despite holes in all these theories, at least one fact about the 1918 pandemic is certain: Black communities were left to fend for themselves to get through the crisis.
Unfortunately, this situation is still all too common today, and the outcomes are painfully apparent15 in the COVID-19 era. Today, as the country is grappling with another pandemic, the human toll16 is higher among Black and brown people. Disparities in health outcomes between races—both today and a century ago—are indisputably17 tied to systemic discrimination and oppression18 of those communities.
■譯文來自機器翻譯和嬤嬤修正,僅供參考。
verb [ I ]
UK /ˈɡræp.əl/ US /ˈɡræp.əl/
<英文釋義:to hold onto someone and fight with them>☆ Two officers grappled with the gunman.經理們已經學會了如何應對聯網、人工智慧、計算機輔助工程和製造。
adjective
UK /juːˈnæn.ɪ.məs/ US /juːˈnæn.ə.məs/
<英文釋義:If a group of people are unanimous, they all agree about one particular matter or vote the same way, and if a decision or judgment is unanimous, it is formed or supported by everyone in a group>☆ Editors were unanimous in their condemnation of the proposals.編輯人員一致譴責這些提議。
verb [ T ]
UK /ˌdaʊnˈpleɪ/ US /ˌdaʊnˈpleɪ/
<英文釋義:to make something seem less important or less bad than it really is>
<中文釋義:對…輕描淡寫;使輕視;貶低>
政府試圖對暴力行為低調處理。
4. as a (general) rule通常;一般來說
☆ As a rule of thumb, a cup of filter coffee contains about 80mg of caffeine.憑經驗估計,一杯過濾咖啡約含80毫克咖啡因。
adjective
UK /səˈsep.tə.bəl/ US /səˈsep.tə.bəl/
<英文釋義:easily influenced or harmed by something>☆ Walking with weights makes the shoulders very susceptible to injury.負重行走時肩膀很容易受傷。
6. pseudosciencenoun [ C usually singular ]
UK /ˈsjuː.dəʊ.saɪ.əns/ US /ˈsuː.doʊ.saɪ.əns/
<英文釋義:a system of thought or a theory that is not formed in a scientific way>
為什麼必須批評和揭露偽科學?
noun [ C or U ] formal
UK /dɪˈspær.ə.ti/ US /dɪˈsper.ə.t̬i/
<英文釋義:a lack of equality or similarity, especially in a way that is not fair>
<中文釋義:(尤指因不公正對待引起的)不同,不等,差異,懸殊>
☆ This striking disparity has big consequences.這個驚人的差異造成了很大的影響。
8. stem from sthUK /stem/ US /stem/
<英文釋義:to start or develop as the result of something>
<中文釋義:源於;出於;基於>
☆ All my problems stem from drink.我所有的問題都源於酗酒。
adjective
UK /ˈdev.ə.steɪ.tɪŋ/ US /ˈdev.ə.steɪ.t̬ɪŋ/
<英文釋義:causing a lot of damage or destruction>
婚外情確實會對婚姻造成毀滅性的影響。
10. mild
adjective
UK /maɪld/ US /maɪld/
<英文釋義:not violent, severe, or extreme>
這個地區因冬季氣候十分溫和而著名。
noun [ U ]
UK /ɪˈmjuː.nə.ti/ US /ɪˈmjuː.nə.t̬i/
<英文釋義:a situation in which you are protected against disease or from legal action>
☆ Because of the immunity of the immature insects, it's important to spray regularly.由於幼蟲對藥物有免疫力,因此必須經常噴藥。
12. virulent (virus-前面有點像病毒)
adjective
UK /ˈvɪr.ə.lənt/ US /ˈvɪr.jə.lənt/
<英文釋義:A virulent disease or poison is dangerous and spreads or affects people very quickly>
現在他面臨著義大利媒體的惡毒攻擊。
13. racial segregation
種族隔離
noun [ U ]
UK /ˌseɡ.rɪˈɡeɪ.ʃən/ US /ˌseɡ.rəˈɡeɪ.ʃən/
<英文釋義:the policy of keeping one group of people apart from another and treating them differently, especially because of race, sex, or religion>
聯邦最高法院一致裁定學校實行的種族隔離措施違反憲法。
14. transmission
noun
UK /trænzˈmɪʃ.ən/ US /trænsˈmɪʃ.ən/
<英文釋義:the process of passing something from one person or place to another>
☆ the transmission of disease.疾病的傳播。15. painfully apparent(熟詞生義,副詞修飾形容詞)
非常地明顯
adverb
UK /ˈpeɪn.fəl.i/ US /ˈpeɪn.fəl.i/
☆ Things are moving painfully slowly.事情進展奇慢無比。
16. toll (咱們在【外刊閱讀】不好意思,我轉移下注意力中學過)
noun
UK /təʊl/ US /toʊl/
<英文釋義:suffering, deaths, or damage>
有人擔心傷亡總數可能會更高。
17. indisputably
adverb
UK /ˌɪn.dɪˈspjuː.tə.bli/ US /ˌɪn.dɪˈspjuː.t̬ə.bli/
<英文釋義:in a way that is true, and impossible to doubt>
這幅畫無疑是他最好的作品之一。
18. oppression
noun [ U ]
UK /əˈpreʃ.ən/ US /əˈpreʃ.ən/
<英文釋義:a situation in which people are governed in an unfair and cruel way and prevented from having opportunities and freedom>
哪裡有壓迫哪裡就有反抗。
1918年流感大流行(英語:1918 flu pandemic),也被稱為西班牙流感(英語:Spanish flu),是於1918年1月至1920年12月間爆發的不尋常致命的流感大流行,造成當時世界人口約四分之一的5億人感染,1700萬至5000萬人死亡,使其成為人類歷史上最致命的大流行病之一,僅次於黑死病。此次大流行是由甲型H1N1流感引起的兩次大流行中的第一次;第二次是2009年H1N1流感大流行。
西班牙型流感可以簡單分為三波,第一波發生於1918年春季,基本上只是普通的流行性感冒;第二波發生於1918年秋季,是死亡率最高的一波;第三波發生於1919年冬季至1920年年春季,死亡率介於第一波和第二波之間。第一波有記錄的流感發生於1918年3月4日位於美國堪薩斯州的芬斯頓軍營,但當時的症狀只有頭痛、高燒、肌肉酸痛和食欲不振而已。4月正處於第一次世界大戰的法國也傳出流感,3月中國、5月西班牙、6月英國,也相繼發生病情,但都不嚴重。
「西班牙流感」的名稱由來是因大流行於1918年11月從法國散播到西班牙。當時第一次世界大戰主要參戰國家如德國、英國、法國和美國為了避免影響士氣,由檢查員嚴格管制媒體報導疫情的數量。但那時保持中立而未參與戰爭的西班牙,並未實施戰時審查制度,所以國內的媒體可以自由地報導,因此大幅報導流行病在當地的影響,例如報導西班牙國王阿方索十三世感染成重症病例,令當時人們錯覺西班牙的疫情特別嚴重,這也導致該流行病被命名為「西班牙流感」,而歷史跟流行病學上的資料並不足夠到能確定此大流行的起源地,因此有不同的觀點。在此流感爆發後近一個世紀,世界衛生組織不再按地理位置命名流行病。該流感的更現代名稱包括「1918年流行性感冒大流行」、「1918年流感大流行」或其他相似名稱。
一般流感暴發通常死亡的是幼童及老年人、或是免疫功能低下的患者,但本次流行事件死者最多的卻是青壯年。科學家為此大流行的高死亡率提供了幾種可能的解釋。一些研究顯示本病毒致死的原因是因為引起細胞素風暴,導致自體免疫系統過度反應。因此免疫力最強的青壯年反而最容易引起強烈的免疫反應而死。另一方面,2007年的分析發現,病毒感染沒有比以前的流感毒株更具侵略性。然而,營養不良、醫療營地和醫院擁擠不堪以及惡劣的衛生情況,促進了二重感染病毒。這種重複傳染通常經過使用長期的臨死所臥之床,而殺死大多數感染者。
■以上資料來自網絡,由嬤嬤整理編輯。
以上觀點,不代表嬤嬤本人立場。
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